THE RESPONSIBILITY TO PROTECT AND NON-STATE ACTORS: ADDRESSING TERRORISM AND SOVEREIGNTY CHALLENGES IN VENEZUELA

Diaz, Claris Monica

doi:10.69648/AOQP2218

Апстракт

The Responsibility to Protect (R2P) was created to address the global failure to prevent atrocities such as genocide, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing. However, with the rise of non-state actors like terrorist organ izations, the framework faces new challenges. This article explores the complications that non-state actors present to R2P’s implementation. It argues that while R2P was initially state-centered, non-state actors often transcend borders and evade international norms, complicating efforts to hold them accountable. Through a case study of Venezuela, this research highlights how terrorism, transnational criminal networks, and other non-state groups complicate the application of R2P. For R2P to remain relevant in today’s global landscape, it must evolve. This evolution involves redefining sovereignty to account for non-state influence, strengthening international accountability mechanisms, and fostering regional cooperation to address the root causes of terrorism. Ultimately, the framework must adapt to modern threats to protect vulnerable populations effectively.

Клучни зборови

Референци

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[1] Bellamy, J. (2011). Libya and the Responsibility to Protect: The Exception and the Norm. Ethics and International Affairs , 25 (3), 263–269. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0892679411000219

[2] Brown, P., Margesson, R., Nelson, M., & Seelke, C. (2022). Venezuela: Background and U.S. Relations. Congressional Research Service , R44841 (32).

[3] Bureau Of Counterterrorism. (2020, December 1). Country Reports on Terrorism 2019: Venezuela . United States Department of State.

[4] Bureau Of Counterterrorism. (2022, February). Country Reports on Terrorism 2021: Venezuela . United States Department of State.

[5] Byman, D. (2020). Understanding, and misunderstanding, state sponsorship of terrorism. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism , 45 (12), 1031–1049. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610x.2020.1738682

[6] Collier, P. (2007). The Bottom Billion. Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can be Done About it. In Oxford Martin School . Oxford University Press. https://www.oxfordmartin.ox.ac.uk/publications/the-bottom-billion-why-the-poorest-countries-are-failing-and-what-can-be-done-about-it

[7] Collier, P., & Hoeffler, A. (2004). Greed and Grievance in Civil War. Oxford Economic Papers , 56 (4), 563–595. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3488799 https://doi.org/10.1093/oep/gpf064

[8] Cronin, A. K. (2009). How Terrorism Ends: Understanding the Decline and Demise of Terrorist Campaigns. In Princeton University Press . Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt7rjbs

[9] Europol. (2017). European Union Serious And Organised Crime Threat Assessment: Crime in the age of technology. SOC TA . https://www.europol.europa.eu/socta/2017/links-between.html

[10] Evans, G. (2009). The responsibility to protect: Ending mass atrocity crimes once and for all. Irish Studies in International Affairs , 20 , 7–13. https://www.jstor.org/stable/25735145

[11] Hehir, A. (2013). The permanence of inconsistency: Libya, the Security Council, and the responsibility to protect on JSTOR. International Security , 38 (1), 137–159. https://www.jstor.org/stable/24480572 https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00125

[12] Hoffman, B. (2006). Inside Terrorism (REV-Revised, 2) . Columbia University Press. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7312/hoff12698 https://doi.org/10.7312/hoff12698

[13] ICISS. (2001). The responsibility to protect: Report of the International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. In IDRC - International Development Research Centre . International Development Research Centre. https://www.idrc.ca/en/book/responsibility-protect-report-international-commission-intervention-and-state-sovereignty

[14] Jackson, R., & Dexter, H. (2014). The Social Construction of Organised Political Violence: an analytical framework. Civil Wars , 16 (1), 1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/13698249.2014.904982

[15] Kaldor, M. (2013). New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in a Global Era (3rd ed.). Polity Press. https://dl1.cuni.cz/pluginfile.php/654678/mod_resource/content/1/kaldor%20-%20old%20and%20new%20wars.pdf

[16] Marthinsen, G. (2018). ISIS: A History By Fawaz A. Gerges. In American Journal of Islam and Society (Vol. 35, Issue 2, pp. 85–88). Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.35632/ajis.v35i2.833

[17] National Security Council. (2011). Transnational organized crime: a growing threat to national and international security . The White House President Barack Obama.

[18] NATO. (2023, July). Countering terrorism . North Atlantic Treaty Organization. https://www.nato.int/cps/en/natohq/topics_77646.htm

[19] Paris, R. (2004). At War’s End: Building Peace after Civil Conflict . Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511790836

[20] Piazza, J. (2008). Incubators of Terror: Do Failed and Failing States Promote Transnational Terrorism? International Studies Quarterly , 52 (3), 469–488. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2478.2008.00511.x

[21] SECI Center Anti‐Terrorism Task Force. (2004). Narco Terrorism (Global And Regional Overview). Organization of Security and Co-operation in Europe .

[22] Spencer, J., & Geroux, J. (2021, September 15). Urban Warfare Project Case Study #2: Battle of Mosul . Modern War Institute at West Point. https://mwi.westpoint.edu/urban-warfare-project-case-study-2-battle-of-mosul/#:~:text=Prime%20Minister%20al%2DAbadi%20declared,nine%20months%2C%20or%20252%20days.

[23] Stahn, C. (2007). Responsibility to Protect: Political Rhetoric or Emerging Legal Norm? on JSTOR. The American Journal of International Law , 101 (1), 99–120. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4149826 https://doi.org/10.1017/s0002930000029559

[24] Thakur, R. (2017). The United Nations, Peace And Security. From Collective Security to the Responsibility to Protect . Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316819104

[25] The Global Coalition To Defeat ISIS . (2021, June 28). U.S. Embassy & Consulates in Italy. https://it.usembassy.gov/the-global-coalition-to-defeat-isis/

[26] Tokatlian, J. G., Insulza, J. M., French, P., & Sotero, P. (2014, March 25). The Crisis in Venezuela: What Role for the International Community? Wilson Center . https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/the-crisis-venezuela-what-role-for-the-international-community

[27] United Nations. (2005, September). World Summit, 14-16 September 2005, New York . https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/newyork2005

[28] United Nations Office of Counter-Terrorism & Interparliamentary Assembly of Member Nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States. (2021, September 8). The Interparliamentary Assembly of Member Nations of the Commonwealth of Independent States (IPA CIS) and the United Nations Office of Counter Terrorism (UNOCT) sign an agreement to reinforce collaboration in preventing and countering terrorism and violent extremism [Press release]. https://www.un.org/counterterrorism/sites/www.un.org.counterterrorism/files/20210908_press_release_mou_unoct_-_ipa_cis_final2.pdf

[29] Welle, D. (2022, September 20). UN says Venezuela committing crimes against humanity. dw.com . https://www.dw.com/en/un-report-venezuela-committing-crimes-against-humanity-to-crush-opposition/a-63187691

[30] Welsh, J. (2013). Norm Contestation and the Responsibility to Protect. Global Responsibility to Protect , 5 (4), 365–396. https://doi.org/10.1163/1875984X-00504002